By COLLINS NKUMBWA,
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the definition, nature and the sources of law in the Zambian legal system. It illustrates the influence of the various theories of law in shaping, understanding and interpretation of laws in Zambia. It looks at the formal and non-formal sources of law in Zambia.
Key words or phrases – Jurisprudence, Theories of Law, Formal and Non-Formal Sources of Law
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word jurisprudence is derived from two Latin words, that is, Juris which means ‘of law’ and Prudens which means ‘skill or knowledge.’ Therefore, when you combine the two words, Jurisprudence refers to the knowledge of law or philosophy of law. It also refers to the science or reasoning behind the law.
The nature of jurisprudence is that it seeks to answer two questions. The first question relates to what law is and the second question is to understand the nature of law. It focuses on the theoretical foundation of law (theories of law) as opposed to substantive law (rights and duties created by the law). This means that Jurisprudence is more concerned with the thought of the law or study of theories of jurists.
The normative character of law means that law functions as a system of rules (norms) that guide human behavior by establishing standards of what "ought to be" done, rather than merely describing what is done. These legal norms are official, binding, and backed by state authority to direct action. Its purpose is to purify the traditional science of law by removing from it the many foreign elements which have found their way into it, and thus to establish a pure method of legal cognition. The chief feature, therefore, is methodological and critical.
It has to be noted that different scholars define and understand the nature of law differently based on different interpretation of the theories of law. Hence, there is no standard definition of law and understanding of the nature of law. As rightly observed by the Supreme Court of Zambia in Citi Bank Zambia vs Dudhia quoting Lord Denning, stated thus: The English language is not an instrument of mathematical precision (Emphasis mine).
2.0 THEORIES OF LAW
There are a number of theories of law which seeks to define law and elucidate the nature of law. These include Natural law (early theorists, medieval period, reformation period and liberal democracy), Legal Positivism, Sociological theories, Legal Realism, Historical school of thought, Marxist theory and Pure theory of law.
The Zambian Constitutional Court in Henry Kapoko vs The People acknowledged some of the theories of law in jurisprudence. The court observed as follows:
Legal theory as it evolved in the 20th Century is instructive. MDA Freeman, Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence, generally, sums up the many theories of law propounded by eminent jurists and philosophical scholars. Acknowledgement here of a few theories suffice to make our point. Kelsen envisaged the legal order as a system of legal norms derived from a basic norm. Hart saw the legal system as a union of primary, duty imposing rules with secondary, power conferring rules, that include the rules of adjudication, change and recognition. And Fuller's internal morality of law identified a procedural or institutional type of natural law in which procedural requirements, such as the law's generality, prior notification, prospective nature, clarity, certainty and utility must be recognized as goals in order for a legal system to qualify as a system of law. In short rules must exist in any fair legal system in order to level the playing field and promote integrity of process. (Emphasis mine)
The following are the theories of law:
2.1 Natural law theory
The proponents of Natural law theory of jurisprudence under discussion include Plato, Aristotle, St Augustine, St Thomas Aquinas and John Locke.
Plato is one of the proponents of natural law theory of jurisprudence. Plato argued that human law is truly law in so far as it conforms to the principles of natural law. He argued that there are certain moral rules which can be discovered by natural reason. One can ascertain principles of natural law by reason and common sense. He posited that human law is truly law in so far as it conforms to the principles of natural law. The physical manifestation of things in a society is only a representation of what is already laid down by a superior being, and so humans should not antagonize that set up. He says that if it is natural for a man to act in a certain way, then he morally ought to act in that way. The behaviour of human beings is already laid down and it is discovered by reason and common sense.
Thomas Acquinas who argued that nature is organized for good purposes. He said that God created nature and rules the world by divine. According to Acquinas, law is divided into three. As you are aware, the first concept is that of Eternal law, which he defined as law known only to God but in which man could participate by exercising his practical reason. The other concept is the Divine law. You will understand that by divine law, he means laws that come from the bible which guide individuals beyond the world to “eternal happiness”. By eternal happiness he referred it to City of God. The last category of law is Natural law. Human law according to Acquinas are laws made by secular rulers or authorities. He argued that human law only qualifies to be law if and only if it is in conformity with external law and divine law.
St Augustin was a naturalist who believed that our earthly existence has been irredeemably tainted with the origin of sin. He distinguished between the city of God and the city of man. While the city of good refers to doing the will of God, the city of man symbolizes a life of sin. St Augustin distinguished and clarified law as the eternal law and temporal human law. According to St Augustin in his writing ‘free choice of the will’, he argued that eternal law is necessary for the temporal law to exist and for the nation to function properly. Eternal law according to St, claimed that it is just, unchanging and follows the proper ordering and reasoning. This eternal law is also what the ordering of everything is based on. He believed that when one pursues his or her life based on eternal things, such as truth, knowledge, and love, then they are living a life under eternal law.
He argued that in contrast to the circumstance under, a life of desire for temporal things such as money, possession and physical appearances, then they are living under the temporal law which, it will not last long. St Augustin stated that despite the two differences, they should work interchangeably and that eternal and humans’ laws are essential to the society. St Augustin propounded that man had become so selfish that he was interested in property and had created institutions such as government in order to serve his selfish interests. Man had lost direction, he argued. Therefore, in order to change the situation, there was need for man to turn back to God’s commandments. He argued further that the ministers of the church were the people who had the ability to know how man needed to conduct himself. He said that even legislators, before they passed any legislation, needed to get the counsel of the men of God. Any law enacted in disregard of natural law was not law. He argued that law ought to be compatible with natural law for it to be law.
According to Aristotle, Natural Law theory involves evaluation of the content of laws against morality, or in even spiritual principles. Natural Law advances a metaphysical inquiry, and is concerned with issues such as man’s moral obligations as a citizen and the limits of lawful government action. He is recognized as a key contributor to classical Natural Law jurisprudence. If you look at Aristotle’s works, Nicomanchean Ethics and The Politics, it illustrates the close link between legal and political philosophy. In Nicomanchean Ethics, Aristotle argued that law supports a virtuous existence, advances the lives of individuals and promotes the ‘perfect community’. He proposed people should employ practical wisdom or active reason in order to behave in a way that is consistent with a virtuous existence.
John Locke was a naturalist theory who believed that God has given to all men a rule whereby men should govern their actions, and that God has promulgated this law. Locke, just like any other naturalist believed in God made laws. According to Locke, civil government originated because of the need for a set of laws to govern society in order to preserve man's natural right to property. He argued that there is a contract between the State and the individual. The nature of this contract is that the individual gives as consideration to the State the right to be ruled or governed, and the consideration from the State is to protect such an individual’s life and property.
According to Locke, rules of morality, which included rules of law, were distinguished from other rules because they were enforced or were associated with rewards and punishments. Locke said that when there is failure of consideration on either side, the contract could be terminated. Take this as an example, when the government’s consideration fails, the people have the right to terminate this contract by voting into office new leaders. He argued that in practice it may be thought that the government gives to the people these rights but in reality, these rights are given to the people by virtue of their being born human.
The Zambian Constitutional Court interpreted Article 118(2)(e) of the Constitution to mean as follows:
Article 118(2)(e) cannot be treated as a 'one size fits all' answer to all manner of legal situations. Article 118(2)(e) is a guiding principle of adjudication framed in mandatory terms. It is a basic truth applicable to different situations………. Article 118(2)(e) is not intended to do away with existing principles, laws and procedures, even where the same constitute technicalities. It is intended to avoid a situation where a manifest injustice would be done by paying unjustifiable regard to a technicality. (Emphasis mine)
2.2 Legal Positivism theory
This theory of law is the legal philosophy which argues that any and all laws are nothing more and nothing less than simply the expression of the will of whatever authority created them. There are essentially three core insights which capture the core commitment of legal positivism.
The first one is the idea that law is essentially a mean. Law is an instrument of social control it can be put to good or bad use; it can be used for bad or good purposes. Secondly law as a social thesis, by this it means that law is basically a matter of social facts. The third insight is that legal positivism is the thesis that has been called the separation of thesis. Separation thesis in this manner consists of claims that determine what the law is does not necessarily, or conceptually, depend on moral or other evaluative considerations about what the law ought to be in the relevant circumstances. These insights will be explained latter in this paper as we consider the argument by the proponents of this theory.
John Austin is best known for his work related to the development of the theory of legal positivism. Austin made attempts to clearly separate ‘moral rules’ from what is known as the ‘positive law’. John Austine, categorized law into three major characteristics. Take not that the first one is the law as a command.
According to him, commands are expressions of desire given by a superior to an inferior. When he refers to ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’, he does not refer to mental capacity but to the fact that there are people endowed with the responsibility of making the commands. These commands emanate from a sovereign. By sovereign he meant people holding positions in the government. Further take note of his perception of law as commands should have sanctions. By sanctions
Austine contended that if there is law, there must be a punishment for failure to comply with it. It is for this reason that he and his disciples argued that international law is not law because it has no sanctions. There has been one major criticism levelled against this third characteristic of law as conceived by Austin. This is that not all laws have sanctions, there are certain laws which encourage certain things such as education, agriculture, health, and commerce. Also, it is notable that according to Austin, a sovereign is a body of person(s) in a political society to whom the bulk of the population is in the habit of giving obedience.
Bentham’s definition of law can be given as the will of the sovereign. He was of the opinion that rules which are derived exclusively from the commands of a sovereign authority form the law of the land. Therefore, he stated that rules which are derived from the will of the sovereign would produce clearer as well as more certain laws than the rules which are generated within a common law system. According to the Bentham, a sovereign is the highest superior body which does not owe any obedience to any other body. It is the sovereign which claims habitual obedience from the people living in a politically organized group.
This rule requires judges to interpret statutes based on the ordinary meaning of the words. If the words are clear, they must be applied, even if the result is harsh or undesirable. It's about what the law says, not what it means.
The Supreme Court of Zambia in the Minister of Information and Broadcasting Services and another Vs Fanwell Chembo (On his own behalf and on behalf of other Members of the Media Institute of Southern Africa and Others stated thus:
what is the natural or ordinary meaning of the word "recommendation" in the context of the two Sections of the two Acts? It is only when that meaning leads to some result which cannot reasonably be supposed to have been the intention of the legislature, that we should look for some other possible meaning of the word "recommendation"….. It is not the duty of the courts to edit or paraphrase the laws passed by Parliament. The first approach is to ascertain the natural or ordinary meaning of any word or phrase in a statute…... It is and was unnecessary to look for some other possible meaning of the word; the natural and ordinary meaning suffices. We are satisfied that the word "recommendation" in the context of the two sections connotes or implies a discretion in the person to whom it is made to accept or reject the "recommendation". (Emphasis mine)
2.3 Sociological theory
Some of the theorists behind this school of thought are Roscoe Pound, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. History will show you that this theory of law arose after the industrial revolution (17th & 18th Centuries). The industrial revolution resulted in inequalities (exploitation of workers for maximum profits). The school of thought also arose due to an increase in poverty, individualism attributed to a rise in capitalism.
The state was not initially involved in the private and social activities of the people. the law is an instrument for serving the interests of society. They argue that the real source of law is not the statutes or precedents (positivists view) but activities of society itself. Law is not immobile (according to positivists) but its rather dynamic and living. Sociological theories of law seek to find law as it really is in society rather than deal with it as it appears in law books or look to a philosophical analysis of law.
They seek to examine closely the workings of society in general, in order to find therein the factors which, determine the nature of law. Relies on the findings of the social sciences, such as sociology, as well as other social science disciplines (historical, political, economic) to explain the nature of law.
2.4 Realist School of Thought
The philosophers of this school of thought are Holmes and Gray. this theory of law is a revolt to formalism which is a radical wing of the sociological school of thought. This was founded upon the American legal system. It considers the written constitution as the supreme law instead of considering parliamentary sovereignty (English).
The sovereign is not Parliament but the Judge. In this regard, you will be right to state that they look at the law as expressions of the will of the State through the Courts for that expression. Law is an expression of the will of the state through the medium of the courts.
Statutes in themselves are dead, until the courts put life in them. Statutes enacted by parliament are subordinate and are subject to judicial review. Courts have powers to confirm or disapprove the legality of any statute passed by parliament.
Therefore, the courts are the law makers and not parliament. What the judge says is law; legislature is only the source of law; lay down rules and precedents or principles. Judges have absolute authority to interpret any written or spoken law. Statutes become law after passing through judicial interpretation. Statutes are drafted in a general form and are sometimes ambiguous or vague.
The courts are the law makers and not parliament. What the judge says is law; legislature is only the source of law; lay down rules and precedents or principles. Judges have absolute authority to interpret any written or spoken law. Statutes become law after passing through judicial interpretation. Statutes are drafted in a general form and are sometimes ambiguous or vague.
Therefore, judges give particular meanings to clear the ambiguities or vagueness. It is the courts that deduce law from the rules of law in the text of a statute. Judges should not only decide based on legal analysis but must take into account prevailing economic, political and social situation at any given time.
Philosophers of this school of thought are Holmes and Gray. Therefore, judges give particular meanings to clear the ambiguities or vagueness. It is the courts that deduce law from the rules of law in the text of a statute. Judges should not only decide based on legal analysis but must take into account prevailing economic, political and social situation at any given time.
The Supreme Court of Zambia in Resident Doctors Association of Zambia and Others v The Attorney General stated thus:
Courts as final arbiters, when interpreting the Constitutional and the laws made thereunder, which confer the freedoms there is need for the court to adopt an interpretation, which does not negate the rights. Most jurisdictions adopt a generous and purposive construction of human rights instruments, so as to confer on a person the full measure in the enjoyment of the rights. (Emphasis mine)
2.5 Historical School of Thought
The historical approach to law holds that legal development is a function of the people. In other words, the law is tied to the mores, culture, or tradition of the people. The historical school of the nineteenth century views law as an evolutionary process and concentrates on the origin and history of the legal system. Savigny perceived law as reflective of the spirit of the people. Legal development is evolutionary, not revolutionary.
Laws are to be found, not made or given. According to Savigny, legal development passes through the early stage of unwritten custom. then codification of those customs and, lastly, purposeful legislation. He denies the universality of law. Recall that Cicero defined natural law as unchanging, universal, and everlasting. In denying law these qualities, Savigny emphasized the temporality of law and, the importance of time, space and geography in legal development. In other words, Savigny argued for the relativism of law.
An example is the understanding of the history of the court structure in Zambia. Zambia's court system history dates back to the colonial era. Before the British arrived, traditional tribal courts administered customary law. The British introduced English common law and established courts, creating a dual system where local courts applied customary law and other courts applied English law. The Barotseland North-Western Rhodesia Order in Council and the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in Council established judicial systems, with the High Court created in 1911. In1929, there was official recognition given to Native Courts (now Local Courts) through the Native Courts Ordinance.
An example is the history of the land tenure system in Zambia. The history of the Zambian land tenure system can be categorized into three phases. These are pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial periods.
The Pre-Colonial Period refers to a period before colonialism. The land was administered according to African customary law, varying from tribe to tribe. The traditional leaders, like chiefs and village headmen, governed land on behalf of the community.
The Colonial Period refers to a period when Zambia was colonized by Britain who introduced a dual land tenure system. The Crown Land was meant for the European settlers with freehold and leasehold titles while the Native Reserves were meant for indigenous people governed by customary law.
Lastly is the Post-Colonial Period which refers to a period after Zambia got independence. The Crown Land became State Land and Native Reserves and Trust Land retained their status. In1975, there were land reforms in Zambia when the Land (Conversion of Titles) Act converted freehold to leasehold whose estate was 100 years. In 1995, the Lands Act repealed the 1975 Act which resulted in the change of estate from 100 years to 99 years and continued the recognition of customary land tenure system. Hence, Zambia's land tenure system has both customary land tenure and statutory land tenure systems.
2.6 Marxist theory of law
The key to understanding society, and hence to understanding law, is to look to economy, and given society’s organization. Marx uses a special term for his analysis of economy. He refers to the means of production. This means the ways in which people make their living- ways of producing social wealth. More fully, we could refer to the means of production, distribution, and exchange.
Marx also refers to the mode of production determining the general character of society. Marx believed that the state had fallen into the hands of those who own property- the bourgeoisie, which organizes itself politically and takes control of the state The state (and its institutions) therefore come to serve the interests of the property-owning class. Marx argues that the state rests in class interest.
This theory of law explains the struggle between employer-employee relationship in practice.
2.7 Pure theory of law
Kelsen was an Austrian jurist and philosopher who propounded what is known as the Pure Law Theory. The theory is so called because in his definition of law, Kelsen endeavors to exclude all elements which he considered foreign to law. Kelsen writes, ‘is to explore what law is, not what it ought to be.’ Therefore, law should be seen in its normative purity, free from all ‘alien elements’ like statements of psychology, ethics, and politics.
According to Kelsen, Grund norm is the final postulate upon which depends the validity of all norms of any given legal system. He also calls the grand norm as the initial hypothesis. Kelsen’s argument is that the Grund norm is the basis upon which norms exist and that the grand norm should not be questioned. He goes further and talks about a revolution.
This theory illustrates constitutional supremacy in the case of Zambia. This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic of Zambia and any other written law, customary law and customary practice that is inconsistent with its provisions is void to the extent of the inconsistency.
3.0 FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL SOURCES OF LAW
Formal sources of law, such as legislation, constitutions, and judicial precedents, are legally binding and enforced by the state. Informal sources, including social norms, customs, legal scholarly writings, and religious edicts, influence law and fill gaps but are not strictly binding.
An example of formal sources of law in Zambia is Article 7 of the Zambian Constitution provides for the sources of law in Zambia as follows:
The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The High Court, took judicial notice that Zambia had enacted the Constitution of Zambia Act No. 1 of 2016 and the Constitution of Zambia (Amendment) Act No. 2 of 2016 on 5th January, 2016. The Zambian Constitution was also amended on 18th December, 2025 which resulted into enactment of Constitution Bill No. 7 into law styled as Constitution of Zambia, Amendment Act No. 13 of 2025. The Constitution amendment of 2025 does not repeal the entire Constitution or do away with the 2016 amendment as it only affects or amends specific Articles. The amended Articles include 47, 52, 58, 68, 71, 73(3), 81, 103, 116, 117, 149(7), 153, 154, 159(4), 176(3), 178(1), 179(4) and specific definitions under Article 266. This means that any Articles of the Constitution (apart from the bill of rights) not amended by the 2025 amendment should be cited from the Constitution of Zambia Amendment of 2016;
Statutes (laws enacted by Parliament). Parliament refers to the National Assembly and the President working together, in whom the legislative authority of the state is vested by the Constitution. Whatever parliament does must be within the limits set by the constitution. The same applies to the executive wing of government;
By Statutory Instruments refer to laws made by ministers or institutions in the exercise of power conferred on them by Acts of Parliament. The position of any statutory instrument is that it must comply with the empowering legislation and with the Constitution. Where provisions of statutory instruments are in conflict with the enabling law then such instrument is to the extent of the inconsistency ultra vires, with the relevant provision of the empowering;
There are also other laws extended to Zambia. The other laws extended to Zambia are provided in the English Act Extent of Application Act. The Act provides for laws from England that are applicable to Zambia. These laws passed in the United Kingdom on or before 17th August 1911. Further, you will note that the British Act Extension Act also provides for specific laws that are extended to Zambia which were enacted in the United Kingdom after 17th August, 1911; and
Judicial Precedents - Article 125(3) of the Constitution of Zambia recognizes judicial precedents in Zambia which provides that ‘the Supreme Court is bound by its decisions, except in the interest of justice and development of jurisprudence. This position of the law is also fortified by the Zambian Supreme Court Judgment in which it was held that lower courts should follow the recent or latest decision of the Supreme Court if there are two apparently conflicting decisions of the court. The lower courts are bound by the decision of the Supreme Court based on principles of stare decisis and judicial precedents.
An example of non-formal sources of law includes regional and international instruments ratified by Zambia. Zambia is a dualist state for purposes of enforcement of regional and international instruments. This means that once the country ratifies (sign) any international or regional instrument, it does not automatically apply in Zambia unless it is domesticated (made part of the national law through the process of enactment of laws).
The Zambian Supreme Court and the statutory law confirms the foregoing position of the law. The former provides that international instruments are not binding in Zambia if they are ratified without domestication, and can only be used for persuasive value. The latter provides for the process for ratification and domestication of international and regional instruments in Zambia.
The other category refers to writings of eminent writers. The court may consult this category source of law for persuasive value and mostly if there is a gap in the primary source of law. The Zambian Supreme Court used dictionaries as a source of law in Zambia to define the word recommendation in the statute. Further, in Phiri and another vs Registered Trustees of Catholic Diocese of Mpika shows that the High Court quoted from the book of the learned author (Frederick S Mudenda, Land law in Zambia: Cases and Materials, UNZA Press 2006).
4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The study and comprehension of the Zambian jurisprudence require, to borrow the words of the Constitutional Court of Zambia in Henry Kapoko vs the People, a proper placement within its jurisprudential roots. It be deduced from the above discussion that jurisprudence focuses on study of the theories of law which seeks to explain the definition and nature of law. It is vital to understand the definition and nature of law according to different theories of law and apply the theories of law to solve practical issues in society.
As observed by Lord Wilberforce in Donoghue v Stevenson, the criterion of judgment must adopt and adapt to the changing circumstances of life. This is a course that is not static but dynamic in nature. The theories of law evolve as society keeps evolving.
The Supreme Court of Zambia in Nyimba Investments Limited and Nico Insurance Zambia Limited stated thus: “As the artist Bob Dylan famously observed, you don't need the weatherman to know in which direction the wind blows.” It is evident that jurisprudence as a course provides the theoretical basis of the understanding of law and also provides solutions to issues in society.
About Author
COLLINS NKUMBWA, Esq.
CIP (NIPA), LLB (UNZA), LLM (UNZA), AHCZ, ASCZ, PhD Cand.
Lecturer of law and Commissioner of Oaths
REFERENCES
STATUTES
British Act Extension Act Chapter 10 of the laws of Zambia
Constitution of Zambia, Chapter 1 of the laws of Zambia
English Act Extension of Application Act Chapter 11 of the laws of Zambia
The Interpretation and General Provisions Act Chapter 2 of the laws of Zambia
The Ratification of International Agreements Act No. 34 of 2016 of the laws of Zambia
CASE LAW
DJ Kasote vs The People 1977 ZR 75
Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) AC 562
Henry Kapoko vs The People 2016/CC/0023 page J32
Mumba and others v Electoral Commission of Zambia and others 2015/HP/0967 page R6
Nyimba Investments Limited and Nico Insurance Zambia Limited Selected Judgment No.12 of 2017
Phiri and another vs Registered Trustees of Catholic Diocese of Mpika
The Attorney General, The Movement for Multiparty Democracy V Akashambatwa Mbikusita Lewanika, Fabian Kasonde, John Mubanga Mulwila, Chilufya Chileshe Kapwepwe, Katongo Mulenga Maine (1994) S.J. (S.C.)
The Minister of Information and Broadcasting Services and another Vs Fanwell Chembo (On his own behalf and on behalf of other Members of the Media Institute of Southern Africa and Others SCZ Judgment No. 11 OF 2007
The People V Roxburgh (1972) Z.R. 31 (H.C.)
Citi Bank Zambia vs Dudhia Appeal No. 6 of 2022 Appeal No. 6 of 2022
Zambia in Resident Doctors Association of Zambia and Others V The Attorney General (SCZ Judgment No. 12 of 2003)
Zambia Sugar PLC vs Fellow Nanzaluka Appeal No. 82 of 2001
BOOKS
Anyangwe, C. (2005) An outline of the Study of Jurisprudence, Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Anyangwe, C. (2005) An outline of the Study of Jurisprudence, Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Fitzgerald P.J. (1970) Salmond on Jurisprudence London; sweet and Maxwell.
Freeman. W. (2003) Legal theory; London: Sweet and Maxwell.
Paton, G.W. A textbook on Jurisprudence Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press: 2004
Ridall, JG (1999) Jurisprudence, Oxford: Oxford University Press
ONLINE SOURCE
The Postulate of the Historical Law Theory and Conflict of Laws: An Articulation of African (Ukele) Communal Legalism. Celsus Paul E. Ekweme, Post Graduate Student, Department of Philosophy, University of Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Email: celsuspaulekweme@gmail.com
Joseph Ricken. The Rule of Law and Informal Justice Systems: A Potential Conflict in Judicial Development. Student HT 2012 Examensarbete, 30 hp Juristprogrammet, 270 hp Handledare: Per Bergling. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:626025/FULLTEXT01.pdf